Caste - Based Violence: Layers of Oppression

“Hello there! I’m here to provide you with a bit of information on what caste-based violence, its various facets, and the Indian laws relevant to this abuse. Experiencing abuse in any form is NOT OKAY, but what you are experiencing as a result of abuse is valid. What you, as a bystander, are going through while supporting a survivor is absolutely okay and typical too!  If you need additional resources or just someone to talk to, feel free to reach out to Imaara Foundation."

Written by Vedha I.K

How did the caste system emerge?

The caste system in India significantly influences the disproportionate impact of sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) on women—particularly Dalit women. As a rigid social hierarchy based on birth, the caste system stratifies individuals into different levels of power, privilege, and oppression. This article explores the intersection of caste, gender, and class in perpetuating violence and discrimination.

Dalits, often referred to as “untouchables,” are excluded from the traditional four-tiered varna system comprising Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. Several theories attempt to explain the origin of the caste system:

• Religious Theory: The Rig Veda describes different castes as originating from various parts of Brahma, the Hindu god of creation. Dalits, not included in this creation myth, are placed outside the varna system altogether.

• Triguna Theory: Rooted in the Bhagavad Gita, this theory posits that individuals are born with different qualities (gunas)—sattva, rajas, and tamas—which shape their temperament and occupational roles.

• Historical Theory: Scholars suggest that during the Vedic period, especially after the Aryan invasion, occupational mobility became restricted. Concepts of "purity" and "pollution" were introduced to preserve social order and dominance (Chaudhry, P., 2013).

Dalits face systemic oppression, social exclusion, and economic marginalization. Dalit women, in particular, are subjected to compounded discrimination through what is known as graded patriarchy—a system wherein different social groups experience and perpetuate patriarchy to varying extents. Alarming statistics reveal that, on average, four Dalit women are raped every day in India (Kumar, A., 2021), with over 80% of these assaults perpetrated by upper-caste men.

The Weaponization of Sexual and Gender-Based Violence as Caste Oppression

Sexual violence against Dalit women is not random—it is a deliberate tactic to assert dominance and degrade entire communities. Rape is weaponized to keep Dalits in a state of subordination, often as an act of vengeance or to “settle scores.” This form of violence stems from caste-based power imbalances and deeply entrenched ideologies found in ancient texts such as the Manusmriti, which institutionalized caste-based discrimination and purity-pollution norms.

Dalit women’s testimonies are frequently dismissed due to their “lower” social status. The Devadasi system exemplifies the historical sexual exploitation of Dalit women. Originally intended as a religious offering of women to temples, the practice devolved into a form of ritualized sex work. Young girls—especially from marginalized castes—were coerced into serving priests, landlords, and upper-caste men under the guise of religious duty (Deane, T., 2022).

Additionally, about 76.24% of illiterate Dalit women engage in hazardous work, such as beedi-making (Kumar, A., 2021; Tamil Nadu Women’s Forum), a key factor in their economic vulnerability and lack of legal awareness. Illiteracy, coupled with socioeconomic dependence on upper-caste employers, creates conditions ripe for exploitation and silencing.

Historically, the Jajmani system enforced caste-based occupational immobility. Lower-caste communities were compelled to perform manual labor for upper-caste landlords in exchange for basic survival. Even today, this power imbalance persists, leaving Dalit women particularly exposed to abuse.

It is important to note that while poverty plays a role, caste and gender are more directly linked to incidents of sexual harassment and violence. The 2012 Nirbhaya case—involving an upper-caste woman raped by lower-caste men—led to nationwide outrage and swift sentencing. In contrast, numerous cases involving Dalit survivors and upper-caste perpetrators, such as:

• The Mathura case (1972)

• The Khairlanji Massacre (2006)

• The Lalasa Devi case (2016)

• The Delta Meghwal case (2016)

• The Bhanwari Devi case (1992)

...were either dismissed or resulted in the acquittal of the accused (Patil, P., 2016; Dey, A., 2019).

Upper-caste women are not always allies in these struggles. In the Khairlanji massacre, upper-caste women were reportedly bystanders—some even cheered—as lower-caste women were being raped and assaulted.

Why are inclusive feminism and support systems important?

Mainstream feminist movements in India have historically been dominated by upper-caste voices and have often failed to acknowledge or address caste-based sexual violence. Public outrage tends to be selective, reinforcing systemic erasure of Dalit women's experiences. In response, Dalit feminism has emerged as a powerful movement, centering the voices and lived realities of Dalit women.

The social identity of a survivor influences legal outcomes, media coverage, and societal response. Hence, it is essential to recognize the compounded nature of discrimination faced by Dalit women and provide culturally relevant, trauma-informed support.

The caste system continues to produce widespread inequality, affecting not just Dalit women, but all genders from marginalized castes. These inequalities include:

• Social exclusion and ostracization

• Economic exploitation and wage gaps

• Violation of fundamental rights

• Endogamy and dietary restrictions

• Lack of political representation

Support systems must be made accessible to survivors of caste-based SGBV, with focused legal, emotional, and economic aid.

What are some legal protections and community support systems are available in India for caste-based violence?

India’s constitutional and legal framework provides tools to combat caste-based discrimination and violence:

• Article 14: Guarantees equality before the law and prohibits discrimination based on religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth.

• Article 17: Abolishes the practice of untouchability and forbids it in any form.

• The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act (PoA), 1989:Enacted to prevent atrocities against SCs and STs, establish special courts for speedy trials, and ensure relief and rehabilitation for victims. It places particular emphasis on protecting Dalit women.

  Under Section 21 of the Act:

  • Legal aid must be provided to survivors.

  • Travel and related expenses for witnesses and survivors must be covered.

  • Social and economic rehabilitation is mandated.

Additionally, civil society organizations play a vital role. NGOs such as Imaara Foundation, Human Rights Education (HRE) initiatives, and grassroots women’s collectives provide legal aid, counseling, awareness programs, and long-term support to survivors.

Addressing caste-based sexual and gender-based violence requires a holistic approach that tackles the root causes of inequality—casteism, patriarchy, and classism. Survivors must be met with empathy, protection, and justice, regardless of their social background. Reform must go beyond policy and into practice, ensuring that the legal system is not complicit in silencing marginalized voices. Only through inclusive activism, intersectional feminism, and structural change can India begin to dismantle caste-driven violence and uphold the dignity and rights of every woman.

Want the references for this article?

• Kumar, A. (2021). Sexual violence against Dalit women: An analytical study of intersectionality of gender, caste, and class in India. Journal of International Women's Studies, 22(10), 123-134.

• Chaudhry, P. (2013). Caste as an institutionalised system of social exclusion and discrimination: Some evidences. International Journal of Gender and Women’s Studies, 1(1), 56-63.

• Deane, T. (2022). The devadasi system: an exploitation of women and children in the name of god and culture. Journal of International Women's Studies, 24(1), 8.

• Dey, A. (2019). ‘Others’ Within the ‘Others’: An Intersectional Analysis of Gender Violence in India. Gender Issues, 36(4), 357-373.

• Musahar, Y. (2023). Deciphering links between sexual violence and castes in India. Contemporary Voice of Dalit, 15(1_suppl), S33-S44.

• Patil, P. (2016). Understanding sexual violence as a form of caste violence. Journal of Social Inclusion, 7(1).